Literature review (group)

ENTERTAINMENT AND EDUCATION

Perhaps one of the biggest roadblocks in a student's learning process is maintaining the focus, attention, and interest needed to absorb a large quantity, or challenging quality, of information. Given that one definition of entertainment is: 'an activity that is diverting and that holds attention', it is tempting to propose that incorporating entertainment into education will improve learning outcomes, by increasing attention and motivation (Malouf, 1988).

Recent decades have witnessed technological advances that are reshaping entertainment; one particularly 'addictive' example is the gaming industry (Hsu, et al, 2009; Qiang, 2008). Psychological theories that may help explain why video games command attention include Malone and Lepper's (1987) intrinsic motivators; games may tap into seven of these motivators: challenge, curiosity, fantasy, control, competition, cooperation, and recognition. From Maslow's proposed hierarchy of needs, games may satisfy six: aesthetic, social, esteem, cognitive, self-actualization, and transcendence (Maslow, 1968). Achieving self-actualization through higher levels of learning is important to psychological well-being (Goldman and Kernis, 2002).

Given this consensus that social interaction is closely related to both motivation and psychological need, it is not surprising that social cues and social influence dynamics are important in learning (Meltzoff, et al 2009). Children learn and alter mental models by collaborating with peers, and reading social cues from teachers. Evidence is mounting that people can form social bonds with even rudimentary computer characters, and these characters may elicit personable responses by adopting anthropomorphic qualities (Fogg, et al, 2008). They may do this visually, emotionally, with sounds and voices, by taking on animate roles such as a mentor, companion, or competitor, or by performing social acts like apologizing, introducing themselves, thanking or taking turns.

Another educational advantage that games may offer is their ability to simulate environments, and cause and effect relationships, without limitations present in real-world environments like safety, time and distance (Hay et al). This combination of visual, spatial and auditory information that a player can manipulate may affect all three modalities of working memory: visuo-spatial, phonological, and central executive (Baddely, 1992). In experiments using stationary bikes, subjects that exercised with a virtually-simulated, passing environment exercised longer without perceiving any change in effort (Van Veen et al, 1998). This suggests that environmental simulations may not only affect the perception of time, but also behaviour and achievement.

Current pedagogical models are beginning to shift from a more traditional, classroom-based approach, to ones which acknowledge that a large fraction of a student's learning happens outside of school. Koschmann et al (1996) suggest that the current education system tends to over-simplify complex concepts, and that many graduated students have poor recall, are unaware when they have gaps in their recall, and can not put their knowledge into practise. They also propose that computers will be helpful in rectifying this by mediating collaborative, problem-based learning.

The constructivist learning theory posits that experiences drive learning, and much work has been done on how to incorporate this principle into education. Constructivist learning environments encompass microworlds, goal-based scenarios, problem based learning, anchored instruction, and open-ended learning environments (Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999). These learning environments are arguably epitomized in the virtual reality labs that now exist in many schools in the United States, supplementing courses on physics, engineering, mathematics, and the sciences (Conetzkey, 2009). Information scientists are taking advantage of shared, online virtual worlds as new media in which to store and retrieve knowledge (Sidorko, 2009).

Emotions are very powerful in influencing memory (LeDoux, 1996; Clore and Gasper, 2000; Hamann, 2001), and may enhance learning through the mood-congruency effect (Matt et al, 1992), or by improving heuristic and creative thinking (Norman, 2003). Emotions affect self-discipline and achievement, where negative emotions or anxiety may bring about worst case scenarios (Wegner, 1994).

Computer games in particular may evoke emotional responses (Van Reekum, 2000). While human emotion is complex, some elements found in games that may do this include the sudden appearance, movement, or rapid approach of objects, unexpected loud or sharp noises, pop-up windows, subjects that command a large portion of the visual field, movement in the peripheral vision, and stimuli related to evolutionarily innate biases: such as crying sounds, violent or romantic imagery (Brave and Nass, 2008).

INTERACTIVE STORYTELLING AND COMMUNICATION

Interactivity and the use of computers as tools may increase a student's sense of control, self-efficacy, and confidence (Fogg et al, 2008). They may achieve this by allowing the student to tailor their own learning experience, or by breaking large blocks of linear information into smaller paths of interconnected information (Herbert, 1974). Computers in particular may facilitate change in behaviour, and have proved useful tools in therapeutic studies with children (Tombari, Fitzpatrick, and Childress, 1985).

In order for any teacher or tool to impart knowledge, a student must believe these sources are credible. Fogg et al (2008) define credibility as a perceived quality composed of a source's trustworthiness (i.e. is the source knowledgeable, experienced, and competent), and its creator's expertise (i.e. their knowledge and skill). It is interesting to note that one of the most influential factors on credibility in websites, is their aesthetic 'feel' (Fogg et al, 2008). Other elements that affect credibility include internal consistency of virtual environments (this doesn't necessarily entail hyper-realism, just that the style is cohesive and understandable); including credentials such as references, outside links, content policies, photos, and contact information; a user-friendly site navigation; tailored user experience; no ads or overly commercial elements; no glitches or signs of an amateur product (Fogg et al, 2008; Stanford Web Credibility Research, 2004).

EXAMPLES OF INTERACTIVE STORYTELLING IN EDUCATION:

A software program that teaches genetic concepts to (high school students?); a website that outlines links between cognition, mental pathologies, and genetics (this site also has a customizable learning experience, in that you can navigate using connected maps or through traditional drop-down menus); a virtual tour of the cell (a good example of a visual and interactive application with encyclopedia elements). A virtual modelling tool designed to teach the astronomy of the solar system; this was also part of learning science research into the efficacy of VR tools in classrooms.

RESEARCH DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

In designing experiments that determine the success of educational games in classrooms, there are many things to consider:

1. If an experimental and control group are used, will the experimental group be taught solely with an educational game, or will the game supplement traditional instruction?

2. Should groups be randomized, or controlled by selecting students with similar GPAs, demographics, or cultural backgrounds?

3. A large sample size would be ideal in overcoming sampling biases, but how willing will schools be to participate in such studies?

4. Would a cross-over design, in which experimental and control groups switch treatments halfway through the study, be possible?

5. How can long-term retention be separated from short-term retention of knowledge? A way to address these might be to test students immediately after learning the material, and again three months later.

6. What should be incorporated into a pre-test? Examples may include: student's current knowledge of the class subject, their mood, home life, and prior experience with games.

IMMUNOLOGY

The lymph node environment:

This space will be enclosed by the lymph node's capsule (dense irregular connective tissue), representing the boundary which our character cannot cross (for now).

The stroma, or intercellular matrix, will contain reticular fibers (these may be solid obstacles, or immaterial and present for accuracy and instruction), reticular cells, and fibroblasts going about their business of maintaining the loose connective tissue framework of the lymph node.

The node will be divided into three general areas: the medulla, paracortex, and cortex. Inside the medulla can be found medullary cords and lymph sinuses, the latter may contain lymphocytes, macrophages, floating antigens and antibodies (these may be travelling to or from the other layers of the lymph node, or exiting the node through the efferent lymphatic vessel).

Inside the paracortex (or thymus-dependent zone) there will be many T-cells, which may be arriving through high endothelial venules, or through lymph sinuses connecting with one of the afferent lymphatic vessels. They could be accepting antigens from APCs (the MHCII interaction), proliferating (and possibly differentiating into cytotoxic T cells or T helper cells) in response to antigen stimulation, secreting cytokines that mobilize other T cells after antigen stimulation, or emigrating from the lymph node through the efferent lymphatic vessel.

The cortex, or outermost of the three layers, will contain many B cells. These will aggregate into nodules, and if they have been stimulated by antigen, will form germinal centres with proliferating B cells (differentiating into plasma cells that secrete antibodies, or into long-lived memory B cells). This germinal centre can be further divided into an interior dark zone (where proliferation occurs), basal light (B cells migrating out), and apical light zone (B cells migrating out, APCs and T helper cells may also be here) .

(Copyright Linda Wilson-Pauwels)